by Antonio Chiattone
Today, the word "ornament" refers to something added afterwards for embellishment purposes, and is therefore considered superfluous. However, this was not the case in ancient times. The latin word "ornamentum" originally meant "equipment", "armour", or "harness", and only secondarily "embellishment", "jewel", or, figuratively, "honour", "lustre", "sign of distinction", or "honorific title". Another meaning of "ornamentum" was costumes and apparatus used in theatre or at ceremonies. The general concept of ornament never distinguished between aspects related to practical functionality — often primary, as in the case of weapons, armour and bridles for leading horses — and those pertaining to the aesthetic dignity of objects. The idea of decor ("decorum") went hand in hand with this. This range of meanings is evident in many contemporary situations, including design, fashion and entertainment, where identity and recognition are crucial for understanding the environmental and narrative context immediately. Cinema, and even more so genre cinema, in which characters require precise and easily memorable definitions, is a prime example. We reproduce here the chapter entitled "Il costume" from the book Il film western, published in 1949 by Antonio Chiattone (1904-1957), a pioneer of Italian film criticism. Antonio Chiattone came from a family of distinguished artists from Lugano. He was the grandson of sculptors Antonio (1856–1904) and Giuseppe (1863–1954), the son of printer, lithographer and poster designer Gabriele (1853–1934), and the brother of architect and painter Mario (1891–1957). Chiattone's figurative and decorative influences are immediately apparent in his thoughts on clothing in western movies. He conceives of the film scene as a moving picture, aptly using the words "decoration" and "ornament" to identify the physiognomic and rhythmic elements that shape the narrative in space and time. Although Chiattone's lexicon and historical information are outdated, this does not diminish the effectiveness of his analysis. He focuses on a series of figurative conventions that prioritise recognisability and dramatic continuity, even if this results in some liberties, as is the case in other media, from theatre to comics. See A. Chiattone, Il film western, Poligono, Milan, 1949, pp. 107–114. Images in the text are the result of an editorial choice.
In cinema, costumes, makeup, and lighting complete the illusion created by the story. In the early days of cinema, particularly westerns, costumes were not as important as they are today. However, some directors and actors attempted to enliven this genre by giving costumes greater prominence. If we lament the unnecessary improvements to old movies and blame them on George O’Brien, who wanted to make his Westerns into documentaries, perhaps we should also blame Broncho Billy. He demanded this introductory phrase for his Westerns: “The film in which everything is true.” Of course, this excludes his horseback rides, as he prudently had a stuntman replace him. I think one of the first things Broncho Billy considered was his costume.
The great care given to costumes in western films is closely related to the continuous refinement of cameras. Today, cameras can easily capture every detail, which was impossible in the early days of cinema. The costumes in early adventure films were probably as accurate as they are today, but the details were often overlooked as superfluous. Certain plaid shirts that were once thought to instantly transport viewers to boundless prairies are now a thing of the past. Who should we blame: the actors, directors, costume designers, or cinematographers? Perhaps the blame lies with fashion, which has influenced even the West.
In a western film set between 1850 and 1870, we will find characteristic mid-century fashion elements, such as plaid shirts, plush vests with showy floral and arabesque designs, and top hats. Top hats were characteristic of sheriffs at that time, but they later became a “conventional” element in movies, indicating at first glance that the sheriff belonged to the bad guys. It would make no sense to depict mid-century fashion in movies set in more recent times.
However, one would need to know what the western film was originally. In their book Histoire du cinéma, Bardèche and Brasillach even discuss fighting wild beasts! (op. cit., p. 59). 〈1〉. Let us at least try to define the term “costume” in the context of the Old West.
It is a blend of Native American and European costumes adapted to certain practical needs. Although the railroad shortened distances in the second half of the 19th century, fashion arrived in the West considerably late.
Pioneer women led lives similar to those of men. Attacks by native americans, outlaws, and bandits did not allow for an idle life; they could hardly find time for mirrors and fashion trends. Interestingly, the crinoline, which first appeared in Europe around 1845, was brought to California during the gold rush of 1848. However, it never reached the excessive size seen here around 1860.
Perhaps women in the West embellished their skirts with pleats and gathers instead of crinolines or iron cages, neither of which were designed to allow for freedom of movement. The same can be said for tournures. These beautiful contraptions were designed for walking with an imposing, calm, and majestic air. However, they were not suitable for running, walking quickly, or riding. This made these two fashion items quite impractical.
It’s difficult to determine how many other 19th-century fashion elements, such as burnooses, jockeys, and zouave jackets with their distinctive sleeves, were transformed in the West and adapted to a purely practical lifestyle. They’re barely recognizable.
Clearly, if men’s fashion coupled indigenous (native and african american) elements with japanese elements, then parisian women’s fashion would have also incorporated elements from local costumes to create a unique style. We will not analyze the various native american costumes, which differ greatly from one another and share many similarities with eastern decorative arts, particularly japanese and chinese arts. However, we note that, as with japanese costumes, the center of decoration is often shifted to the back in native american costumes.
The jacket worn by the protagonist in Ford’s film The Iron Horse 〈2〉 was an impressive recreation of a traditional costume. The decoration on the back was a precise reproduction of a typical and unmistakable pattern, indicating that the hero had contact with the natives.
When faced with this blend of decorative and functional elements, one cannot help but think of the hard work of costume designers who created outfits for western films. While Hollywood has no shortage of documents, photographs and drawings, costume museums, it should be noted that, in striving for verisimilitude, the hero must also embody ideal qualities and know how to capture the audience’s attention. The protagonist is not always known for his style. Children want him to win and take exceptional revenge on his rival at the right moment, while the masses want the hero to be charming more than an excellent actor. Later, gesture scholars will evaluate him, dissecting his actions in detail.
Costumes can enhance an actor’s physical appearance, making them more likable. However, costume designers run the risk of weighing down an actor’s figure. Screen cowboys are usually rugged, perhaps because the genre requires constant physical exertion. Therefore, lines or decorations that might make the hero appear stocky should be avoided. Today, we will compare the costumes of the same character in different editions, knowing that the author may have been the actor himself.
Instead, our study relies almost entirely on an anonymity. Consider the character Lassiter in Riders of the Purple Sage, for example. There are several versions of the film, and little information is available, especially about the first two. The first film, a Fox production starring Tom Mix, was distributed in Italy as Il segreto dell’abisso. The second, starring Buck Jones, was released in Italy as Il cavaliere misterioso. The third, directed by Hamilton MacFadden in 1930 and starring George O’Brien, was released in Italy as L’amazzone mascherata. The last, directed by James Tinling in 1941, starred George Montgomery 〈3〉.
Let’s compare the costumes in the last two editions, paying special attention to the outfit worn by the protagonist, Lassiter, when he first appears. As in the novel, Lassiter is introduced when he arrives at James Whitersteen’s ranch just as Oldring’s men are about to whip Venters. As the author of the story points out, Lassiter wears a black suit and a black sombrero 〈4〉.
The anonymous costume designer who created Lassiter-O’Brien’s costume adhered to the serious style imposed by the mandatory black color. The designer devised a leather strap lacing for the original shirt, distinguishing it from cheap shirts.
Herschel, Fox’s new costume designer, didn’t put much effort into designing the Lassiter-Montgomery shirt. It’s an ordinary shirt, like every other shirt in the world. However, Herschel added a unique touch by tying a thin, long, lightweight, black handkerchief around Lassiter’s neck. This detail is important because it emphasizes the length and elasticity of the actor’s limbs. We do not believe, however, that the belt and bandolier should be attributed to the same costume designer because these elements generally belong to the actors and remain unchanged throughout every movie.
The sombreros worn by O’Brien and Montgomery are not strictly designed according to local costumes. However, they differ from one another to match the actors’ facial features. While Lassiter-O’Brien wore the same costume throughout the film, Herschel designed more than one for Lassiter-Montgomery, and they were not always black. In the finale, the dark sombrero was replaced with a light-colored one, almost white. Thus, a defining feature of the character was absent; the character was intended to have a “mysterious” quality that transcended the specifics of the narrated events. These examples demonstrate that despite their apparent uniformity in dress, screen cowboys differ from one another in all the ways that define them.
Men’s fashion in the West has not changed much since the gold rush of 1848 because it has always been practical. Traditionally, men’s attire consists of pants and a shirt. Jackets are worn only on special occasions, reflecting parisian fashion and serving as an elegant garment. In the early years, it resembled the dress style of the pioneers. Often, the jacket is replaced by a wool or leather shirt, whose cut recalls native american costumes. These shirts are decorated in one of two contrasting styles: a native american style with oriental influences or a mexican style with spanish influences. After all, scholars claim that native americans are an asian people who migrated to the Americas via the Bering Strait. One need only observe the presence of the hooked cross, a typical oriental motif, in cowboy clothing decorations. Sometimes, the vest, shaped like a bolero, reveals spanish origins. However, Spain’s influence is most evident in the cowboy’s attire, which is identical to that of the “caballero.” All the interest and beauty of the decorations are reserved for the saddle and weapons. Some saddles have very fine silver inlay, and some spurs and revolvers have stocks that are goldsmithing masterpieces comparable to oriental art.
The horse’s equipment receives more attention than the rider’s. No material is sumptuous enough. In Mexico, splendid crimson velvets and glittering fabrics in delicate blues were found, embroidered in silver and gold. They clearly showed their spanish origin. Often, the smallest saddles are real jewels because of the intricate goldsmith work decorating them. Spain is undoubtedly present here, too.
Sometimes, alongside precious and sought-after decorations in the pure spanish renaissance style of the 17th century, we find decorative elements and functional objects that are typically of native american origin and that reference oriental decorative art. Thus, the circle is closed.
However, none of the decorative elements of the western costume, such as the colors red, blue, and gold, or the intricacy of the workmanship, were enhanced in the black-and-white film. Although the feast of color, variation, and exaltation of life was lost, this was offset by a “superior” composition and surreal, magical images. Later, the use of color would allow every element to be exploited. We recall Tom Mix’s belts and saddles, which featured combinations reflecting the actor’s personal taste. For example, he always wanted his initials, T.M., to appear on the saddle, the bandoleer, and the shirt. He could have used the character’s name instead. The decorations were typical spanish rosacea. Similarly, we have the figure of the cowboy Roy Rogers, who remains himself in the film narrative, through the same type of costume. The only notable aspect of his costume is the refined design of his colorful shirts.
At this point, one might ask: who are Hollywood’s costume designers for western films? Although these films are less important than others in the vast world of film production, they have helped prepare and launch talented directors and exceptional actors. Conversely, sometimes directors and actors who have reached the pinnacle of their careers create new westerns.
It’s difficult to trace the costume designer from the press sheets. Why not assume that the designer created the costumes exclusively for the masses? This element, more than any other, can establish a style, convey an era, and indicate a geographical location. In our research, we found the following names of costume designers and wardrobe department directors:
R.K.O.
Wardrobe Designers: Renie e Edward Stevenson
Wardrobe Manager: Claire Cramer
Republic
Make-up: Bob Mark
20th Century Fox
Manager Wardrobe Department: Charles Le Maire
Universal
Fashion Designer: Travis Banton
Columbia
Wardrobe Department: Ray Howell
Fashion Designer: Jean Louis
M.G.M.
Designer: Irene
Wardrobe: Sam Kress
However, we are certain that these costume designers consider the costumes as a whole for each section of the movie. For westerns, for example, they consider the masses rather than giving special attention to the protagonist.
Before concluding this chapter, let’s analyze the costumes in John Ford’s latest movie, Fort Apache, which is set around 1870 〈5〉. Two costume designers worked on the film: Anne Peck designed the women’s costumes and Michael Myers designed the men’s. Their faithful reconstruction of the era made the film more believable and “documentary-like.”
D.R.O. Hatswell, the head of costume research, should be added to the list. We believe Hatswell researched original costumes using photographs and museum models.
There is no question that the collaboration of these three people resulted in some of the finest historical costumes in film. They had to blend with their characters, embody a “type,” and appear true, as if the camera could travel back in time and capture an episode of those wars and men.
Compared to documents from that time period, the men’s military costumes seem accurate. They lack only the comic sense that all old photographs possess. However, we think that, for the first time, Ford inserted a certain humor throughout the film. The director wanted his characters to appear as “heroes,” as they did to their contemporaries.
The differences between directors John Ford and René Clair are subtle. Ford’s heroes are never comical or humorous, while Clair’s characters never appear serious or command respect. However, with the exception of the villain and the colonel of Fort Apache, Ford’s heroes are genuinely good. This makes humor possible. Conversely, Clair’s comic characters, such as Jacques-François Périssé in Le silence est d’or 〈6〉 during the departure scene for military service, are not laughable.
The female costumes of Fort Apache cannot be observed in detail. In the film, only the wide skirts appear, creating composed volumes of various shades of gray. However, the rigor of the documentation stems from the photographs, which reveal Anne Peck’s diligent care as a faithful executor.
〈1〉 M. Bardèche, R. Brasillach, Histoire du cinéma, Denoël et Steele, Paris 1935 [editor's note]. 〈2〉 The Iron Horse, 1924, directed by John Ford [editor's note]. 〈3〉 The chronology of the four versions of Riders of the Purple Sage is as follows: 1918, directed by Frank Lloyd and starring William Farnum; 1925 (italian edition Il segreto dell'abisso), directed by Lynn Reynolds and starring Tom Mix; 1931 (italian edition L'amazzone mascherata), directed by Hamilton MacFadden and starring George O'Brien; 1941, directed by James Tinling and starring George Montgomery. Chiattone's list is missing the 1918 movie, and there's no record of a movie starring Buck Jones [editor's note]. 〈4〉 The scripts for Riders of the Purple Sage are based on Zane Grey's 1912 novel of the same name. Chiattone generically refers to the wide-brimmed hat as a "sombrero" [editor's note]. 〈5〉 Fort Apache, 1948, directed by John Ford [editor's note]. 〈6〉 Le silence est d'or, 1947, directed by René Clair [editor's note]. Homepage: Justus D. Barnes in the final shot of "The Great Train Robbery" (1903), directed by Edwin S. Porter. Below: Autographed photograph of George O'Brien in “Riders of the Purple Sage”, 1931, directed by Hamilton MacFadden.
